Some things have to be discovered over and over again or there simply won't be enough research to do. Krebs and Johansen (2012) pooled six studies of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in the treatment of alcoholism from 1966 to 1970:
PSYCHEDELICS AS
EXIT DRUGS
Some things have to be discovered over and
over again or there simply won't be enough research to do. Krebs and
Johansen (2012) pooled six studies of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)
in the treatment of alcoholism from 1966 to 1970:
"In a post hoc analysis of trials with available dichotomized data, we
calculated the pooled benefit difference on improvement in alcohol
misuse at first follow-up and also calculated the number needed to
treat. The benefit difference (also known as the risk difference) for
each trial is the percentage of improved patients in the LSD group
minus the percentage of improved patients in the control group. The
number needed to treat is the inverse of the pooled benefit difference
and provides an estimate of the average number of patients needed to
be treated with LSD rather than without LSD to achieve one additional
patient with improved outcome on alcohol misuse."
That number, they found, was six.
The Krebs and Johansen study addressed skeptics' criticisms that the
included studies were sloppily designed and predated modern scientific
methods, in fact those studies were brought to a sudden halt by the
criminalisation of LSD and particularly by the UN Convention on
Psychotropic Substances signed 21 February 1971, which fought back
against the cure for alcoholism by placing LSD, psilocybin, mescaline
and MDMA in a "no medical uses" category.
In terms of short-to-medium-term impact from a single treatment
session, nothing else in mid-20th-century medicine came close to the
success rates of psychedelic therapy. It outpaced standard counseling
and early aversion therapies by a landslide.
https://www.ntnu.edu/documents/139226/8932977/JOP439253.pdf
[5609]
The alcohol and tobacco lobbies were energetic about trying to bend
the definitions of "psychotropic effect" and "dependence-producing
properties" to exclude their addictive and harmful products, which the Court is wittingly or otherwise supporting. Alcohol would have legally fallen
into the net. This would have subjected the multi-billion-dollar
global liquor trade to strict UN-mandated import/export
authorizations, manufacturing licenses, and international trade
quotas.
Based on global demographic data from that specific year: the
percentage of delegates who smoked was almost certainly a majority,
likely hovering between 50% and 70% of the room. There were of course
no restrictions on smoking indoors.
in the early 1970s, roughly 50% to 55% of all adult men in the United
States and the United Kingdom were regular cigarette smokers. In
countries like France, Japan, and several Eastern European nations,
the male smoking rate exceeded 60% to 70%.
It was a "smoke-filled room" in the literal sense. Photographs and
archival accounts of UN plenipotentiary meetings from the late 1960s
and early 1970s consistently show diplomatic halls draped in heavy
clouds of haze. Delegates sat at their desks with personal ashtrays,
puffing away on cigarettes, pipes, and cigars right at the negotiation tables
while drafting global drug prohibitions.
As clearly as these screen captures are able to show, the delegates
might not have been as health conscious or up to date as the average
influencer of today, with the link between tobacco and lung cancer
having been established by Richard Doll with Austin Bradford Hill in a
major case control study published in 1950, while the first US Surgeon
General's report on smoking eventually surfaced in 1964. And, it might
be noted, background environmental standards generally have come a
long way since 1971, as can be seen in this comparison of the rather
sooty Hofburg convention venue in 1971 with today's palace.
https://media.un.org/avlibrary/en/asset/d262/d2623405
[6172]
It is fair to say the plenipotentiaries would have looked out of place
at a Grateful Dead concert. To say psychedelics users were not
represented at Vienna massively understates the size of the bias.
No one at the Vienna gathering had - as far as we know - actually
taken any. The entire show was run for and by people who didn't know
what they were talking about. The complete exclusion of the people
actually taking these substances happened for several reasons:
1. A top-down bureaucratic monarchy
The 1971 Convention was not a democratic assembly or a public health
town hall; it was a diplomatic plenipotentiary conference attended
exclusively by government bureaucrats, law enforcement heads,
diplomats, and state-sanctioned medical elites.
The primary Western delegations - most notably the United States, led
by representatives from the Nixon administration's Bureau of Narcotics
and Dangerous Drugs (the precursor to the DEA) — approached the
conference with an explicitly political, punitive mandate.
To Nixon, psychedelics were inextricably linked to the anti-war
movement, civil rights unrest, and student radicalism. Representing
the users of these drugs would have been seen as negotiating with
political subversives.
The total absence of NGOs and civil society
In modern international treaty negotiations, it is common for
Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), human rights groups, and
patient advocacy circles to have "observer status" or a seat at the
table to voice the concerns of affected communities.
In 1971, that infrastructure simply did not exist for drug policy.
There were no harm-reduction coalitions, no psychedelic research
advocacy groups (like MAPS today), and no consumer unions. The only
non-state actors with massive, back-room access were trade
representatives from the multi-billion-dollar global pharmaceutical
lobby (representing companies in Switzerland, West Germany, the UK,
and the US), who were there strictly to protect their commercial
interests in sedatives and amphetamines.
3. The framing of users as "mentally ill" or "criminal"
From the official perspective of the World Health Organization (WHO)
and the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs in 1971, a user of
psychedelics fell into only two possible categories: a victim of
severe psychiatric pathology or a criminal deviant. Under that
paternalistic medical-legal framework, consulting the users themselves
would have been viewed by the delegates as absurd as consulting a
virus on how to draft a quarantine protocol.
Because there was no one to testify to the profound spiritual
awakenings, the therapeutic breakthroughs in alcoholism, or the
psychological utility of these compounds, the treaty architects felt
entirely comfortable placing LSD and psilocybin into Schedule I,
declaring them to have "zero medical value", a political decree that
completely froze scientific research for the next forty years.
https://www.iceers.org/en/news/1971-convention-indigenous-peoples/
[6170]
Thus the legal fate of psychedelics was not decided rationally or
scientifically, but tribally. Of the Convention and its output, Rufus
King says:
"It covers such a grab-bag of natural and manufactured items that at
every stage of its consideration its proponents felt obliged to stress
anew that it would not affect alcohol or tobacco abuse."
https://web.archive.org/web/20090212122959/http://www.druglibrary.net/special/king/dhu/dhu21.htm
[6171]
Jensen et al (2024) have discovered, all over again, what the LSD
researchers found out in the 1950s.
"This open-label, single-group study
investigated single-dose psilocybin therapy in ten treatment-seeking
adults (eight men and two women; median age 44 years) with severe AUD.
The treatment involved two preparation sessions, a high-dose
psilocybin session (25 mg), and two integration sessions.
Pharmacokinetics were determined by noncompartmental analysis, and
changes in alcohol consumption, craving and self-efficacy, were
assessed with a linear mixed model.
"Results
Notable between-participant pharmacokinetic
variations were observed, with peak plasma psilocin concentrations
ranging from 14-59 g/L. Alcohol consumption significantly decreased
over the 12 weeks following psilocybin administration. Heavy drinking
days were reduced by 37.5 percentage points (95% CI, -61.1, -13.9, p =
0.005), and drinks per day decreased by 3.4 units (95% CI: -6.5,
-0.3), p = 0.035). This was corroborated by reports of rapid and
sustained reductions in craving and increases in selfefficacy.
"Conclusions
Despite pharmacokinetic variations, a single
25 mg psilocybin dose was safe and effective in reducing alcohol
consumption in AUD patients. Larger randomised, placebo-controlled,
single-dose AUD trials are warranted."
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/383382218_Single-Dose_Psilocybin_Therapy_for_Alcohol_Use_Disorder_Pharmacokinetics_Feasibility_Safety_and_Efficacy_in_an_Open-Label_Study/fulltext/66ca05b897265406eaaa61ea/Single-Dose-Psilocybin-Therapy-for-Alcohol-Use-Disorder-Pharmacokinetics-Feasibility-Safety-and-Efficacy-in-an-Open-Label-Study.pdf?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIn19
[3481]
Lodetti et al also made the same rediscovery
in 2024:
"Alcohol is a harmful drug, and reducing its
consumption is a significant challenge for users. Furthermore, alcohol
dependence is often treatment-resistant, and no completely effective
treatment model is available for chemical dependence. Classic
psychedelics, such as LSD, psilocybin, and ayahuasca have been used in
different clinical and pre-clinical trials, demonstrating promising
pharmacotherapeutic effects in the treatment of treatment-resistant
psychopathological conditions, such as addiction, especially related
to alcohol dependence. In this work, we conducted a narrative review
of the emerging research regarding the potential of psychedelics for
alcohol use disorder treatment. Psychedelic substances have
demonstrated potential for treating drug addiction, especially AUD,
mostly by modulating neuroplasticity in the brain. Given that
serotonergic psychedelics do not produce physical dependence or
withdrawal symptoms with repeated use, they may be considered
promising treatment options for managing drug use disorders. However,
certain limitations could be found. Although many participants achieve
positive results with only one treatment dose in clinical studies,
great inter-individual variability exists in the duration of these
effects. Therefore, further studies using different doses and
experimental protocols should be conducted to enhance evidence about
psychedelic substances."
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278584624001970
[3482]
And de Jonge et al (2024) discover in
"Psychedelic Research for Alcohol Use Disorder with Comorbid Major
Depressive Disorder: An Unmet Need"
"In AUD, a growing evidence base for
psilocybin treatment shows a promising beneficial and sustained effect
on measures of drinking frequency. In MDD [major depressive disorder],
a recent meta-analysis has demonstrated that psilocybin therapy
provides a large and consistent reduction in depressive symptoms
compared to no treatment. Co-occurrence of MDD and AUD is quite
prevalent, and this comorbidity exacerbates symptomatology of the two
individual disorders and complicates their treatment."
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11920-024-01567-4
[3772]
In "The Relationship Between Psychedelic Use
and Alcohol Use Disorder in a Nationally Representative Sample" of
139,524 individuals, Zech et al (2025) lump LSD, MDMA and ketamine
together under a dubious "psychedelics" head, but only LSD was
significantly associated with reduced alcohol consumption:
"Past-year LSD use was significantly
associated with lower odds of AUD (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.70, p
= .006). However, use of MDMA (aOR = 1.17, p = .229) and ketamine (aOR
= 1.28, p = .235) was not associated with AUD. In a quasi-Poisson
regression analysis, past-year LSD use was found to be associated with
15.7% fewer AUD symptoms (IRR = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.72 - 0.98, p = .033),
but neither past-year MDMA nor past-year ketamine use were
significantly associated with AUD symptoms (MDMA: IRR = 0.97, 95% CI:
0.83 - 1.13, p = .731; ketamine: IRR = 1.21, 95% CI: 0.93 - 1.57, p =
.139). Taken together, these findings indicate differential
associations between specific psychedelics and AUD, with LSD use
linked to a reduced risk of AUD."
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41208129/ [5624]
In an article for Deutsches Ärzteblatt
international, Spangemacher et al (2024) feel that psychotherapy's
embrace of psilocybin (although the Defendant believes this idea
misses the point) is a first for psychiatry:
"This review is based on pertinent
publications (since 1969) that were retrieved by a selective search
carried out in August 2024 in the PubMed and ScienceDirect databases
employing the keywords 'psilocybin' AND 'long-term effects' AND
'mental disorders', with an emphasis on randomized, controlled
clinical trials (RCTs).
"Results: The available RCTs document the
efficacy of psilocybin mainly against depression, including otherwise
medically refratory depression. Most of the trials revealed a strong
effect, with Cohens d ranging from 0.67 to 2.6; they used a variety of
depression scales and follow-up intervals. Evidence was also found for
the efficacy of psilocybin against substance use disorders (alcohol in
particular) and symptoms of anxiety accompanying life-threatening
somatic illnesses, such as cancer. Initial uncontrolled studies have
also shown significant improvement after the administration of
psilocybin for other indications.
"Conclusion: Treatment with psilocybin differs
fundamentally from classic psychopharmacotherapy. Its potentially
transdiagnostic, rapid, and sustainable efficacy and its positive
effect on further dimensions of mental health beyond the patients
symptoms and psychopathology imply that it may have disease modifying
and salutogenic mechanisms of action. Psychotherapy accompanied by the
administration of psychedelic drugs may turn out to be the first
disease-modifying treatment in the history of psychiatry."
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Moritz-Spangemacher/publication/387461413_Psilocybin_as_a_Disease-Modifying_Drug-a_Salutogenic_Approach_in_Psychiatry/links/67af66a8207c0c20fa8a2495/Psilocybin-as-a-Disease-Modifying-Drug-a-Salutogenic-Approach-in-Psychiatry.pdf?_tp=eyJjb250ZXh0Ijp7ImZpcnN0UGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIiwicGFnZSI6InB1YmxpY2F0aW9uIn19
[4840]
As Keighley et
al (2025) explained all over again in "A Systematic Review and
Meta-Analysis Investigating the Efficacy of Various Psychedelic Drugs
for the Treatment of Substance Use Disorder":
"Lysergic Acid Diethylamide has low toxicity and abuse potential and
is a serotonergic hallucinogen that works as a 5-HT2A agonist.
Researchers used LSD to treat alcoholism throughout the middle to late
20th century. A meta-analysis conducted in 2012 by [Krebs and
Johansen] assessed the meaningful effects of LSD in aid for alcoholism
from six randomised trials. Across six studies, 325 participants were
randomly assigned to receive a dose of LSD, and 211 participants were
assigned to a control condition. Results demonstrated the
effectiveness of LSD on alcohol misuse for up to six months."
Apparently even taking LSD in prison can help:
"A research study conducted in the 1970s administered LSD to reduce
substance misuse in heroin addicts. Seventy-eight inmates from a
correctional facility were randomly assigned to a treatment (n = 37)
or control group (n = 37). The treatment group was administered one
dose of LSD-assisted psychotherapy and the control group were
undertaking weekly group psychotherapy with no psychedelic
administration. The LSD group displayed significantly higher
abstinence outcomes at both the 06-month and 712-month follow-up
compared to the control group.
...
"Moreover, an anonymous online survey by Garcia-Romeu et al. 2020
assessed individuals reduced SM following psychedelic intake. Of the
444 respondents, 96% of individuals met the criteria for an SUD and
79% for a severe SUD. Individuals reported taking a moderate to high
dose of LSD (43%), psilocybin (29%), or other (28%). Following
psychedelic encounters, only 27% met the criteria for an SUD. The most
significant reductions in SM were associated with those who reported a
highly personal experience."
In the face of all the financial motivations, the authors note in
their findings that:
"We also found a non-significant difference between the effectiveness
of psychedelic treatment paired with psychotherapy and psychedelic
treatment alone."
https://www.mdpi.com/2227-9032/13/21/2668 [5634]
It's just as well. One apparently unnoticed problem with treating
alcoholics with LSD is that most of them have already spent all their
money on alcohol - so will be unable to fund Slovenia's psychiatric
lifestyles in the hope that someone else will fix their problem.
"In New
Zealand...
"A clinical study using mushrooms containing
the psychoactive psilocybin to treat methamphetamine addiction has
just completed its first phase of trials.
"Over the past month the first cohort of
participants have undergone sessions at Rangiwaho Marae south of
Gisborne.
"Jody Toroa, a trustee at Rangiwaho Marae,
said the goal of the study is find a way to care for whžnau in the
grips of meth addiction, mental illness and PTSD."
https://www.rnz.co.nz/news/te-manu-korihi/539320/marae-based-study-into-psychoactive-mushroom-for-treating-methamphetamine-addiction-completes-first-phase-of-trials
[3946]
In "Psilocybin-Assisted Psychotherapy for Methamphetamine Use
Disorder: A Pilot Open-Label Safety and Feasibility Study" by Knock et
al (2025):
"Fourteen participants completed the study intervention and 13
completed 90-day post-dose follow-up. No serious adverse events (AEs)
occurred, and the seven treatment related AEs were self-limiting and
mild to moderate in severity. AEs included hypertension during the
dosing session and headache (n=4), nausea (n=1) and noise sensitivity
(n=1) within the week following the dose. Methamphetamine use (over
the prior 28 days) decreased from screening (median 12 days, IQR 7-16,
n=15) to day 28 (median 0 days, IQR 0-2, n=13) and 90 (median 2 days,
IQR 1-4, n=14) post psilocybin. Methamphetamine craving decreased
while quality of life, depression, anxiety, and stress improved from
baseline to day 28 and 90 follow-up.
"Interpretation
Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy for methamphetamine use disorder was
feasible to implement in an outpatient setting, did not appear to
generate safety concerns, and demonstrated signals of effectiveness
warranting further investigation."
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=5116026
[5443]
Reviewing a decade of discoveries which existed long before these discoveries were made in "The Therapeutic Potential of Psychedelics in Treating Substance Use Disorders: A Review of Clinical Trials" Hogea et al (2025) report:
"Our
results highlight the key findings from 16 clinical trials
investigating psychedelic therapy for SUDs. Psychedelics like
psilocybin and ayahuasca showed promise in reducing alcohol and
tobacco dependence, with psilocybin being particularly effective in
decreasing cravings and promoting long-term abstinence. The studies
revealed significant improvements in substance use reduction,
especially when combined with psychotherapy. However, the
variability in dosages and study design calls for more standardized
approaches. These findings emphasize the potential of psychedelics
in SUD treatment, though further large-scale research is needed to
validate these results and develop consistent protocols. Conclusions:
This research reviewed the past decades international experience,
emphasizing the growing potential of psychedelic therapy in treating
SUDs pertaining to alcohol, tobacco, and cocaine dependence.
Psychedelics such as psilocybin and ketamine can reduce cravings and
promote psychological well-being, especially when combined with
psychotherapy. However, regulatory barriers and specialized clinical
training are necessary to integrate these therapies into mainstream
addiction treatment safely. Psychedelics offer a promising
alternative for those unresponsive to conventional methods."
https://www.mdpi.com/1648-9144/61/2/278 [5103]
For tobacco addicts, smoking cessation with a single dose of psilocybin was superior to nicotine patches.
In a randomized clinical trial by Johnson et al (2026) and published in Substance Use and Addiction, 42 participants randomized to receive psilocybin had more than 6 times greater odds of prolonged smoking abstinence 6 months after treatment than 40 participants who received the nicotine patch.
"A total of 82 psychiatrically healthy adult smokers (mean [SD] age, 47.6 [12.0] years; 49 [59.8%] male) participated in the study, with 68 (82.9%) completing the 6-month follow-up. At 6-month follow-up, 17 participants receiving psilocybin (40.5%) exhibited biochemically verified prolonged abstinence compared with 4 participants using the nicotine patch (10.0%) (odds ratio, 6.12; 95% CI, 1.99-23.26; P = .003), and 22 participants receiving psilocybin (52.4%) exhibited biochemically verified 7-day point prevalence abstinence compared with 10 participants using the nicotine patch (25.0%) (odds ratio, 3.30; 95% CI, 1.32-8.70; P = .01). No serious adverse events were attributed to psilocybin or nicotine patch."
https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamanetworkopen/fullarticle/2846155 [6011]
According to "The intensity of the psychedelic experience is reliably associated with clinical improvements: A systematic review and meta-analysis
" by Romeo et al (2025):""The findings from this meta-analysis reinforce the growing consensus that the intensity of psychedelic-induced subjective experiences plays a pivotal role in mediating therapeutic outcomes across a wide range of psychiatric and substance use disorders."
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Englishman
stands for the rights of everyone disadvantaged, discriminated
against, persecuted, and prosecuted on the false or absent bases of
prohibition, and also believes the victims of these
officially-sanctioned prejudices have been appallingly treated and
should be pardoned and compensated.
The Englishman requests the return of his CaPs and other
rightful property, for whose distraint Slovenia has proffered no
credible excuse or cause.
The Benedictions represent both empirical entities as well as beliefs.
Beliefs which the Defence evidence shows may be reasonably and
earnestly held about the positive benefits of CaPs at the population
level, in which the good overwhelmingly outweighs the bad. Below, the
latest version of this dynamic list.
THE BENEDICTIONS
REFERENCES
TIMELINE OF DRUG LAW v. SCIENCE